The conception of the field of force, or, as we should more correctly say, the field of energy, thus takes the place of the conception of action at a distance and of the ether. The beam of light and the electromagnetic wave (like that of the radio communication station or that surrounding a power transmission line) are therefore periodic alternations of the electromagnetic energy field in space, and the differ- ences are merely those due to the differences of frequency. Thus the electromagnetic field of the 60-cycle transmission line has a wave length of 3 X lO^V^O cm. = 5000 km. Its extent is limited to the space between the conductors and their immediate surroundings, being therefore extremely small compared with the wave length, and under these conditions the part of the electromagnetic energy which is radiated into space is extremely small. It is so small that it may be neglected and that it may be s…
Magnetism And Hysteresis Passage Atlas
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Why This Theme Matters
Section titled “Why This Theme Matters”This passage may preserve Steinmetz’s magnetic material vocabulary and loss reasoning.
Candidate Passages
Section titled “Candidate Passages”In using the conception of electric quantity Q, we consider only the terminals of the lines of dielectric flux, that is, deal merely with the effect of the dielectric flux on the electric circuit which produced it. This conception is in many cases more convenient, but it necessarily fails, when the distribution of the dielectric flux in the dielectric field is of importance, such as is the case when dealing with high dielectric field intensities, approach- ing the possibility of disruptive effects in the field of force, or when dealing with the effect produced by the introduction of ma- terials of different permittivity into the dielectric field. There- fore, with the increasing importance of the dielectric field in engineering, the conception of electric quantity, or charge, is gradually being replaced by the conception of the dielectric flux and the dielectric field, analogous to the magnetic field, wh…
177. The magnetic circuit of the induction motor at or near synchronism consists of two magnetic fluxes superimposed upon each other in quadrature, in time, and in position. In the polyphase motor these fluxes are produced by e.m.fs. displaced in phase. In the monocyclic motor one of the fluxes is due to the primary power circuit, the other to the primary exciting circuit. In the single-phase motor the one flux is produced by the primary circuit, the other by the currents produced in the secondary or armature, which are carried into quadrature posi- tion by the rotation of the armature. In consequence thereof, while in all these motors the magnetic distribution is the same at or near synchronism, and can be represented by a rotating field of uniform intensity and uniform velocity, it remains such in polyphase and monocyclic motors; but in the single-phase motor, with increasing slip - that is, decreasing…
Consequently, in the polyphase motor running synchronously, that is, doing no work whatever, the secondary becomes current- less, and the primary current is the exciting current of the motor only. In the single-phase induction motor, even when running light, the secondary still carries the exciting current of the mag- netic flux in quadrature with the axis of the primary exciting coil. Since, this flux has essentially the same intensity as the flux in the direction of the axis of the primary exciting coil, the current in the armature of the single-phase induction motor run- ning light, and therefore also the primary current corresponding thereto, has the same m.m.f., that is, the same intensity, as the primary exciting current, and the total primary current of the single-phase induction motor running light is thus twice the exciting current, that is, it is the exciting current of the main magnetic flux p…
In consequence of the relative motion of the primary and secondary, the magnetic circuit of the induction motor must be arranged so that the secondary while revolving does not leave the magnetic field of force. That means, the magnetic field of force must be of constant intensity in all directions, or, in other words, the component of magnetic flux in any direction in space be of the same or approximately the same intensity but differing in phase. Such a magnetic field can either be considered as the superposition of two magnetic fields of equal intensity in quad- rature in time and space, or it can be represented theoretically by a revolving magnetic flux of constant intensity, or rotating
The inductively compensated series motor with secondary ex- citation, or inverted repulsion motor, 3, takes an intermediary position between the series motors and the repulsion motors; it is a series motor in so far as the armature is in the main supply circuit, but magnetically it has repulsion-motor characteristics, that is, contains a lagging quadrature flux. As the field exci- tation consumes considerable voltage, when supplied from the compensating winding as secondary circuit, considerable voltage must he generated in this winding, thus giving a corresponding transformer flux. With increasing speed and therewith decreas- ing current, the voltage consumed by the field coils decreases, and therewith the transformer flux which generates this voltage. Therefore, the inverted repulsion motor contains a transformer flux which has approximately the intensity and the phase re- quired for commutation; it la…
A part of this magnetic flux (lines a in Fig. 111-4) interlinks with the armature circuit only, that is, is true self-inductive or leakage flux. Another part, however, (6) interlinks with the field also, and thus is mutual inductive flux of the armature cir- cuit on the field circuit. In a polyphase machine, the resultant armature flux, that is, the resultant of the fluxes. Fig. Ill, of all phases, revolves synchronously at (approximately) constant in- tensity, as a rotating field of armature reaction, and, therefore, is stationary with regard to the synchronously revolving field, F, Hence, the mutual inductive flux of the armature on the field, though an alternating flux, exerts no induction on the field circuit, is indeed a unidirectional or constant flux with regards to the field circuit. Therefore, under stationary conditions of load, no difference exists between the self-inductive and the mutual in-…
22. Usually in electric circuits; current, voltage, the magnetic field and the dielectric field are proportional to each other, and the transient thus is a simple exponential, if resulting from one form of stored energy, as discussed in the preceding lectures. This, how- ever, is no longer the case if the magnetic field contains iron or other magnetic materials, or if the dielectric field reaches densities beyond the dielectric strength of the carrier of the field, etc.; and the proportionality between current or voltage and their respective fields, the magnetic and the dielectric, thus ceases, or, as it may be expressed, the inductance L is not constant, but varies w^ith the current, or the capacity is not constant, but varies with the voltage.
22. Usually in electric circuits, current, voltage, the magnetic field and the dielectric field are proportional to each other, and the transient thus is a simple exponential, if resulting from one form of stored energy, as discussed in the preceding lectures. This, how- ever, is no longer the case if the magnetic field contains iron or other magnetic materials, or if the dielectric field reaches densities beyond the dielectric strength of the carrier of the field, etc. ; and the proportionality between current or voltage and their respective fields, the magnetic and the dielectric, thus ceases, or, as it may be expressed, the inductance L is not constant, but varies with the current, or the capacity is not constant, but varies with the voltage.
110. Artificial light is used for the purpose of seeing and distinguishing objects clearly and comfortably when the day- light fails. The problem of artificial lighting thus comprises con- sideration of the source of light or the illuminant; the flux of light issuing from it; the distribution of the light flux in space, that is, the light flux density in space and more particularly at the illuminated objects; the illumination, that is, the light flux density reflected from the illuminated objects, and the effect produced thereby on the human eye. In the latter, we have left the field of physics and entered the realm of physiology, which is not as amenable to exact experimental determination, and where our knowledge thus is far more limited than in physical science. This then constitutes one of the main difficulties of the art of illuminating engineering: that it embraces the field of two dif- ferent scie…
former, the high-tension switches are opened at the generator end of the transmission line. The energy stored magnetically and dielectrically in line and transformer then dissipates by a transient, as shown in the oscillogram Fig. 41. This gives the oscillation of a circuit consisting of 28 miles of line and 2500-kw. 100-kv. step-up and step-down transformers, and is produced by discon- necting this circuit by low-tension switches. In the transformer, the duration of the transient would be very great, possibly several seconds, as the stored magnetic energy (L) is very large, the dis- sipation of power (r and g) relatively small; in the line, the tran- sient is of fairly short duration, as r (and g) are considerable. Left to themselves, the line oscillations thus would die out much more rapidly, by the dissipation of their stored energy, than the transformer oscillations. Since line and transformer are co…
former, the high-tension switches are opened at the generator end of the transmission line. The energy stored magnetically and dielectrically in line and transformer then dissipates by a transient, as shown in the oscillogram Fig. 41. This gives the oscillation of a circuit consisting of 28 miles of line and 2500-kw. 100-kv. step-up and step-down transformers, and is produced by discon- necting this circuit by low-tension switches. In the transformer, the duration of the transient would be very great, possibly several seconds, as the stored magnetic energy (L) is very large, the dis- sipation of power (r and g) relatively small; in the line, the tran- sient is of fairly short duration, as r (and g) are considerable. Left to themselves, the line oscillations thus would die out much more rapidly, by the dissipation of their stored energy, than the transformer oscillations. Since line and transformer are co…
As the electromagnetic field represents energy storage in space, it cannot extend through space instantaneously, but must propagate through space at a finite velocity, the rate at which the power radiated by the source of the field can fill up the space with the field energy. The field energy is proportional to the energy radiation of the source of the field (transmission line, radio antenna, incandescent body) and to the electromagnetic constants of space (permeability, or specific inductance, and permittivity, or specific capac- ity), and the velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic field - that is, the velocity of light - ^thus is:
giving most of the light flux between the horizontal and 20 deg. below the horizontal; in many cases of indoor illumination a light source giving most of the light between the vertical and an angle of from 30 to 60 deg. from the vertical - depending on the diameter of the area of concentrated illumination and the height of the illuminant above it. It can also be done by modifying or directing the light flux of the illuminant by reflec- tion or diffraction and diffusion, either from walls and ceilings of the illuminated area, or by attachments to the illuminant, as reflectors, diffusing globes, diffracting shades, etc. Further- more, the required flux distribution can be secured by the use of a number of illuminants, and with a larger area this usually is necessary. Frequently the desired flux distribution is pro- duced by using an illuminant giving more light flux than neces- sary, and destroying the exc…
Hence the logical error which led to the ether theory is the assumption that a w^ave must necessarily be a wave motion. A wave may be a wave motion of matter, as the water wave and sound wave, or it may not be a wave motion. Electrical engineering has dealt with alternating- current and voltage waves, calculated their phenomena and applied them industrially, but has never considered that anything material moves in the alternating-current wave and has never felt the need of an ether as the hypothetical carrier of the electric wave. When Maxwell and Hertz proved the identity of the electromagnetic wave and the light wave, the natural conclusion was that light is an electromagnetic wave, that the ether was unnecessary also
Suppose we have a permanent bar magnet M (Fig. 2) and bring a piece of iron / near it. It is attracted, or moved; that is, a force is exerted on it. We bring a piece of copper near the magnet, and nothing happens. We say the space surrounding the magnet is a magnetic field. A field, or field of force, we define as “a condition in space exerting a force on a body susceptible to this field.” Thus, a piece of iron being magnetizable - that is, susceptible to a magnetic field^ - ^will be acted upon; a piece of copper, not being magnetizable, shows no action. A field is completely defined and characterized at any point by its intensity and its direction, and in Faraday’s pictorial representation of the field by the lines of force, the direction of the lines of force represents the direction of the field, and the density of the lines of force represents the intensity of the field. To produce a field of force r…
The alternation of the field flux induces an e.m.f. of self induction in the field winding. In the shunt motor, this causes the field exciting current and with it the magnetic field flux to lag and thereby to be out of phase with the armature current which, to represent work, must essentially be an energy current, and thereby reduces output and efficiency and hence requires some method of compensation, as capacity in series with the field winding or excitation of the field from a quadrature phase of voltage. In the series motor the self-inductance of the field causes the main current to lag behind the impressed voltage and thereby lowers the power-factor of the motor. Thus, to get good power-factor, the field self-inductance must be made low, that is, the field as weak and the armature as strong as possible. With such a strong armature, and weak field, the commutating pole is not sufficient to control ma…
67. In the theoretical investigation of electric circuits the velocity of propagation of the electric field through space is usually not considered, but the electric field assumed as instan- taneous throughout space; that is, the electromagnetic com- ponent of the field is considered as in phase with the current, the electrostatic component as in phase with the voltage. In reality, however, the electric field starts at the conductor and propa- gates from there through space with a finite though very high velocity, the velocity of light; that is, at any point in space the electric field at any moment corresponds not to the condi- tion of the electric energy flow at that moment but to that at a moment earlier by the time of propagation from the conductor to the point under consideration, or, in other words, the electric field lags the more, the greater the distance from the conductor.
dielectric flux, dielectric field intensity, permittivity, as used in dealing with the electrostatic fields of high potential apparatus, as transmission insulators, transformer bushings, etc. The fore- most difference is that in the magnetic field, a line of force must always return into itself in a closed circuit, while in the electro- static or dielectric field, a line of force may terminate in a con- ductor. The terminals of the lines of electrostatic flux, ^ at the conductor, then are represented by the conception of a quantity of electricity or electric charge, Q, being located on the con- ductor. Thus, at the terminal of the line of unit dielectric flux, unit electric quantity is located on the conductor.
80. Alternating-current motors are usually single-phase, since the possibility of commutation control makes the single-phase easier than a polyphase design. In the single-phase motor, the magnetic field flux is constant in direction, and the direction in quadrature to the main field flux thus is available for pro- ducing a suitable commutating flux. In the polyphase motor, however, the magnetic flux rotates, assuming successively all directions, and thus no commutating flux can be used. For this reason, designs of polyphase commutator motors have been made in which the different (2 and 3) phases are kept separate, and spaces left between them for accommodating commutating fluxes.
86. While magnetic hysteresis or molecular friction is a magnetic phenomenon, eddy currents are rather an elec- trical phenomenon. When iron passes through a magnetic field, a loss of energy is caused by hysteresis, which loss, however, does not react magnetically upon the field. When cutting an electric conductor, the magnetic field induces a current therein. The M.M.F. of this current reacts upon and affects the magnetic field, more or less ; consequently, an alternating magnetic field cannot penetrate deeply into a solid conductor, but a kind of screening effect is produced, which makes solid masses of iron unsuitable for alternating fields, and necessitates the use of laminated iron or iron wire as the carrier of magnetic flux.
86. While magnetic hysteresis or molecular friction is a magnetic phenomenon, eddy currents are rather an elec- trical phenomenon. When iron passes through a magnetic field, a loss of energy is caused by hysteresis, which loss, however, does not react magnetically upon the field. When cutting an electric conductor, the magnetic field induces a current therein. The M.M.F. of this current reacts upon and affects the magnetic field, more or less ; consequently, an alternating magnetic field cannot penetrate deeply into a solid conductor, but a kind of screening effect is produced, which makes solid masses of iron unsuitable for alternating fields, and necessitates the use of laminated iron or iron wire as the carrier of magnetic flux.
105. While magnetic hysteresis due to molecular friction is a magnetic phenomenon, eddy currents are rather an electrical phenomenon. When iron passes through a magnetic field, a loss of energy is caused by hysteresis, which loss, however, does not react magnetically upon the field. When cutting an electric conductor, the magnetic field produces a current therein. The m.m.f. of this current reacts upon and affects the magnetic field, more or less; consequently, an alternating magnetic field cannot penetrate deeply into a solid conductor, but a kind of screening effect is produced, which makes solid masses of iron unsuitable for alternating fields, and necessitates the use of laminated iron or iron wire as the carrier of magnetic flux.
134. The operation of the induction motor thus can also be considered as due to the action of a rotating magnetic field upon a system of short-circuited conductors. In the motor field or primary, usually the stator, by a system of polyphase impressed e.m.fs. or by the combination of a single-phase impressed e.m.f. and the reaction of the currents produced in the secondary, a rotating magnetic field is produced. This rotating field produces currents in the short-circuited armature or secondary winding, usually the rotor, and by its action on these currents drags along the secondary conductors, and thus speeds up the armature and tends to bring it up to synchronism, that is, to the same speed as the rotating field, at which speed the secondary currents would disappear by the armature conductors moving together with the rotating field, and thus cutting no lines of force. The secondary therefore slips in spe…
The direction of rotation of a direct-current motor, whether shunt or series motor, remains the same at a reversal of the im- pressed e.m.f., as in this case the current in the armature circuit and the current in the field circuit and so the field magnetism both reverse. Theoretically, a direct-current motor therefore could be operated on an alternating impressed e.m.f. provided that the magnetic circuit of the motor is laminated, so as to fol- low the alternations of magnetism without serious loss of power, and that precautions are taken to have the field reverse simul- taneously with the armature. If the reversal of field magnetism should occur later than the reversal of armature current, during the time after the armature current has reversed, but before the field has reversed, the motor torque would be in opposite direc- tion and thus subtract; that is, the field magnetism of the alter- nating-curren…
103. In general, an alternating-current transformer conafete of a magnetic circuit, interlinked with two electric circuits or sets of electric circuits, the primary circuit, in which power, sup- plied by the impressed voltage, is consumed, and the secondary circuit, in which a corresponding amount of electric power is produced; or in other words, power is transferred through space, by magnetic energy, from primary to secondary circuit. This power finds its mechanical equivalent in a repulsive llirusi acting between primary and secondary conductors. Thus, if the secondary is not held rigidly, with regards to the primary, it will be repelled and move. This repulsion is used in the constant-current transformer for regulating the current for constancy independent of the load. In the induction motor, this mechanical force is made use of for doing the work: the induction motor represents an alternating-current…
istics of the illuminant, while flux density is a function of the space traversed by the light flux, but not of the source of light : with the same source of light, in the space from the surface of the illuminant to infinite distance, all light flux densities exist between the maximum at the surface of the illuminant (its brilliancy) and zero. Brilliancy thus is the maximum of the light-flux density. While intensity and brilliancy depend upon the shape of the illuminant, light flux is independent thereof. Illumination is a quantity which depends not only on the source of light, that is, light flux and flux density, but also on the illumi- nated objects and their nature, and thus is the light flux density as modified by the illuminated objects. Very commonly, how- ever, the term ” illumination ” is used to denote ” light flux density,” irrespective of the illuminated objects.
The unit of light intensity, or the candle power thus given, with a radiator of uniform light-flux distribution, 4 x lumens of light flux, and inversely, a radiator which gives 4 it lumens of light flux, gives an intensity of one candle, if the intensity is uniform in all directions, and, if the distribution of the intensity is not uniform, the average or mean spherical intensity of the radiator is one candle. Thus one mean spherical candle rep- resents 4 it lumens of light flux, and very frequently the mean spherical candle is used as representing the light flux: the light flux is 4 TT times the mean spherical intensity, and the mean spherical intensity is the total light flux divided by 4 it, regard- less whether the light flux is uniformly distributed or not.
81. If in a direct-current motor, at constant impressed voltage, the field excitation and therefore the field magnetism is decreased, the motor speed increases, as the armature has to revolve faster to consume the impressed e.m.f., and if the field excitation is increased, the motor slows down. A synchronous motor, however, cannot vary in speed, since it must keep in step with the impressed frequency, and if, therefore, at constant impressed voltage the field excitation is decreased below that which gives a field magnetism, that at the synchronous speed consumes the impressed voltage, the field magnetism still must remain the same, and the armature current thus changes in phase in such a manner as to magnetize the field and make up for the deficiency in the field excitation. That is, the armature current becomes lagging. Inversely, if the field excitation of the synchronous motor is increased, the magnet…
The magnetic field of any induction motor, whether supplied by polyphase, monocyclic, or single-phase e.m.f., is at normal condition of operation, that is, near synchronism, a polyphase field. Thus to a certain extent all induction motors can be called polyphase machines. When supplied with a polyphase system of e.m.fs. the internal reactions of the induction motor are simplest and only those of a transformer with moving second- ary, while in the single-phase induction motor at the same time a phase transformation occurs, the second or magnetizing phase being produced from the impressed phase of e.m.f. by the rota- tion of the motor, which carries the secondary currents into quadrature position with the primary current.
In an ununiform electric conductor, the relation of the voltage to the length of the conductor does not determine whether the conductor is safe or whether locally, due to small cross-section or high resistivity, unsafe current densities may cause destructive heating, but the adaptability of the conductor to the current carried by it must be considered throughout its entire length. So in the dielectric field, the thickness of the dielectric may be such that the voltage impressed upon it may give a very safe average voltage gradient or average dielectric flux density, and the dielectric nevertheless may break down, due to local concen- tration of the dielectric flux density in the insulating material. Thus, for instance, in the dielectric field between parallel con- ductors, at a voltage far below that which would jump from conductor to conductor, locally at the conductor surface the concentration of elect…
Exciting admittance in the induction motor, and synchronous impedance in the synchronous motor, are corresponding quanti- ties, representing the magnetizing action of the armature cur- rents. In the induction motor, in which the magnetic field is produced by the magnetizing action of the armature currents, very high magnetizing action of the armature current is desirable, so as to produce the magnetic field with as little magnetizing cur- rent as possible, as this current is lagging, and spoils the power- factor. In the synchronous motor, where the magnetic field is produced by the direct current in the field coils, the magnetizing action of the armature currents changes the resultant field excita- tion, and thus requires a corresponding change of the field current to overcome it, and the higher the armature reaction, the more
and the change of flux, b, thus induces in the field circuit an e.m.f. and causes a current which retards the change of this flux com- ponent, 6. Or, in other words, an increase of armature current tends to increase its mutual magnetic flux, 6, and thereby to de- crease the field flux. This decrease of field flux induces in the field circuit an e.m.f., which adds itself to the voltage impressed upon the field, thereby increases the field current and maintains the field flux against the demagnetizing action of the armature cur- rent, causing it to decrease only gradually. Inversely, a decrease of armature current gives a simultaneous decrease of the self- inductive part of the flux, a in Fig. Ill, but a gradual decrease of the mutual inductive part, 6, and corresponding gradual increase of the resultant field flux, by inducing a transient voltage in the field, in opposition to the exciter voltage, and the…
The shunt motor on an alternating-current circuit has the objection that in the armature winding the current should be power current, thus in phas£ with the e.m.f., while in the field winding the current is lagging nearly 90 deg., as magnetizing current. Thus field and armature would be out of phase with each other. To overcome this objection either there is inserted in series with the field circuit a condenser of such capacity as to bring the current back into p>hase with the voltage, or the field may be excited from a separate e.m.f. differing 90 deg. in phase from that supplied to the armature. The former arrange- ment has the disadvantage of requiring almost perfect con- stancy of frequency, and therefore is not practicable. In the latter arrangement the armature winding of the motor is fed by one, the field winding by the other phase of a quarter-phase sys- tem, and thus the current in the armature…
190. In the commutating machine the magnetic field flux gen- erics the e.in.f. in the revolving armature conductors, which gives the motor output; the armature reaction, that is, the mag- net k Mux produced by the armature current, distorts and weakens the field, and requires a shifting of the brushes to avoid Bparldag due to the short-circuit current under the commutator brushes, and where the brushes can not l>e shifted, as in a reversible motor. this necessitates the use of a strong field and weak armature to keep down the magnetic flux at the brushes. In the alternating- current motor the magnetic field flux generates in the armature conductors by their rotation the e.m.f. which does the work of the motor, but, as the field flux is alternating, it also generates
196. In those motor types in which a transformation of power occurs between compensating winding, C, and armature winding, A, a transformer flux exists in the direction of the brushes, that is, at right angles to the field flux. In general, therefore, the single-phase commutator motor contains two magnetic fluxes in quadrature position with each other, the main flux or field flux, A’, in the direction of the axis of the field coils, or at right angles to the armature brushes, and the quadrature flux, or transformer flux, or commu taring flux, *j, in line with the armature brushes, or in the direction of the axis of the compensating winding, that is, at right angles (electrical) with the field flux.